New Testament Backgrounds

The Intertestamental Period

Approximately 400 years span the gap between the end of the Old Testament and the beginning of the New Testament. We call this the Intertestamental Period. The following material provides an overview of key people, factors, and events which occurred during this period. By familiarizing yourself with these historical dynamics, you will be able to better understand the New Testament.

Old Testament Perspective

Division of National Israel (1 Kings 12)

• Rehoboam’s obstinance split the kingdom, leaving him with two tribes, Benjamin and Judah. This “new” alliance was called “Judah” or “the southern kingdom.”
• The other ten tribes formed organized themselves under the leadership of Jeroboam. This alliance was called “Israel” or “the northern kingdom.”

Fall of the Hebrew nation and the beginning of the Diaspora

• The Assyrian Empire conquered the northern kingdom in 722 BC.
• The Babylonian Empire conquered the southern kingdom in three successive stages—605, 597, and 586 BC.

Second Kings and second Chronicles ends here.

• Beginning at 605 BC, the Israelites were in captivity for 70 years.
• This caused the Diaspora (or Dispersion)
• The term “diaspora” refers to the many Jews who lived outside of Palestine; the total number actually grew to exceed the number of Jews that lived in Palestine.
• The Babylonian Empire was conquered by the Persian Empire, under King Cyrus, in 538 BC.

Return of National Israel

• A group returned the Palestine under Zerubbabel to lay the foundations for a new Temple (Ezra 2-5).
• Haggai and Zechariah returned fifteen years later, under King Darius, to complete the construction of the Temple (Ezra 6-10).
• Nehemiah returned in 444 BC to supervise the construction of the walls around Jerusalem (Nehemiah 13).

The Old Testament ends here.

Intertestamental Period – approximately 400 years

Babylon (605-539 BC): treated the Jews with cruelty.

The Jewish synagogue was established during this time.

Persia (539-331 BC): adopted a policy of tolerance towards the Jews.

Greece (331-164 BC): tolerated the culture of Jews initially, as it infiltrated their culture at the same time.

The Greek empire was preceded by separate Greek city-states. The early birth of this culture overlapped with the Old Testament period of the Judges to some degree. The famous Trojan War and the life of Homer, the renowned author of The Iliad and The Odyssey (epic poems about ancient Greek lore) overlapped with the reigns of David and Solomon. Then Pericles (an influential general and politician) and Socrates (an influential philosopher) lived during the period of Ezra and Nehemiah.

• Philip of Macedon united the Greek city states on the Macedonian peninsula.
• Alexander the Great, Philip’s son, displayed tolerance towards the Jews. He established Greek cities throughout his empire.
  • He propagated Greek culture.
  • He propagated Greek language.
• Alexander’s four military generals divided the empire into four parts after he died.
  • Seleucus claimed the Persian region.
  • Ptolemy claimed the Egyptian region.
  • Palestine was sandwiched between the territories of these two generals, governed first by the Seleucids and later to Ptolemy.
• Antiochus Epiphanes returned Palestine to the Seleucids and treated the Jews with extreme hatred and cruelty.
  • He plundered Jerusalem.
  • He defiled the Temple by offering a pig on the altar.
  • He instated the death penalty for circumcision.
  • He sold Jews into slavery and tortured others.
  • He destroyed copies of Scripture.

Maccabees (164-63 BC): secured independence for the Jews until the rise of the Herodian dynasty under the Roman Empire.

Mattathias, an intensely patriotic priest, gathered a band of Jews to spark a revolution. He was the father of several acclaimed sons.

• Judas was nicknamed “the Hammer.”
  • He assumed his father’s leadership in the revolution.
  • He won incredible battles against incredible odds.
  • He reclaimed Jerusalem from the Seleucids.

The Jews introduced the festival of Hanukah to memorialize their success in the Maccabean revolution.

• Jonathan succeeded his brother Judas.
• Simon was brother of Judas and Jonathan.
  • He secured a treaty with Rome guaranteeing political freedom for the Jews.
  • He ended the Maccabean Revolution.
  • His son, John Hyercanus, succeeded him as the first ruling priest.

This marks the beginning for Jewish priests – the High Priest – holding both religious and political power in one office.

New Testament Stage

Notable People Groups

• Samaritans: descendants from northern Israel who had intermarried with foreigners transplanted in Israel by the Assyrian empire (see 2 Kings 17:24-27).
• Priests: descendants of the line of Aaron
• Levites: descendants of the line of Levi
• Scribes: professional copyists, teachers, and interpreters of the Jewish law, most of whom were also Pharisees.
• Pharisees: the most ardent supporters of Jewish law, especially noted for their rigid endorsement of Jewish tradition that exceeded the Old Testament law. They were the party of the synagogue.
• Sadducees: prestigious descendants of the priesthood, distinguished by their denial of supernatural realities and their tendency to make decisions that were politically expedient.  They were the party of the Temple.
• Essenes: an isolated sect that lived in a monastic community separate from Jewish society. They are not mentioned in scripture.

The Sanhedrin functioned as the Jewish supreme court. It consisted of seventy members representing various segments of Jewish society and was administrated by the High Priest. It had authority to issue the death penalty only in religious cases.

• Zealots: Jewish political revolutionaries who plotted to overthrow the authority of Rome in Palestine.
• Herodians: the Herodian dynasty descended from the Edomites of the Old Testament, which was the family line of Esau (see Matt. 22:16, Mk. 3:6, 12:13).
  • Herod the Great – 37 to 4 BC
    • He was ruling at the birth of Christ.
    • He ordered the massacre of baby boys in Bethlehem.
  • Herod Antipas – 4 BC to AD 39
    • He ordered the martyrdom of John the Baptist.
    • He reigned during the trial of Jesus.
  • Herod Agrippa – 37 to 44 AD
    • He ordered the martyrdom of the apostle James.
    • He ordered the imprisonment of the apostle Peter.
    • He died from worms at the direct hand of God (Acts 12).
  • Herod Agrippa II – 50 to 100 AD
    • He appeared with Festus at the trial of the apostle Paul.
    • He would have acquitted Paul.

Notable Institutions

The Temple

• This was not the Temple that Solomon built.
• This was the Temple rebuilt at the end of the Old Testament.
• Herod enlarged and embellished it to earn kudos with Jews.
• The Romans destroyed it in AD 70.

The synagogue

• This building in various cities and towns throughout the Roman Empire was devoted to Hebrew worship and instruction.
• Tradition required that ten adult Jewish men reside in the city in order for a synagogue to be erected.
• Tradition prevented sacrifices from being offered in synagogues. Sacrifices could only be offered in the Temple in Jerusalem.
• Synagogues enabled Jews in the Diaspora to maintain their familiarity with scripture and devotion to God.

The Sanhedrin

• It functioned as the ruling body for Jewish people.
• It convened in Jerusalem.
• It was a council consisting of the following members:
  • The High Priest (he functioned as the president)
  • Chief priests
  • Scribes and lawyers
  • Elders from common class
  • Pharisees
  • Sadducees
• It possessed authority to issue the death penalty only in religious cases; deferred civil cases to the Roman procurator, e.g., Pilate.

Rome appointed procurators to provide imperial oversight of rebellious provinces.

Major Factors

“But when the fullness of the time was come, God sent forth his Son, made of a woman, made under the law…” (Gal 4:4)

Hebrew Contributions

• A monotheistic perspective: other world religions observed a pantheon of multiple gods (see Deuteronomy 6:4).
• A moral code of law: this heightened awareness of society’s need for spiritual deliverance (Galatians 3:24).
• Scripture in written form: the standardized manuscripts circulated throughout the world.

Jewish scribes translated the Hebrew Old Testament into the Greek language around 285 BC. This occurred in Alexandria, Egypt with about 70-72 scribes in an effort to make the OT scriptures more readily available to new generations of Greek-speaking Jews.

Greek Contributions

• A culture with a developed mind: an appreciation for writing, speaking, art, and education produced an atmosphere for clear thinking and formal communication.
• A common language throughout the world: this made it possible for the gospel to spread efficiently between people groups.

Roman Contributions

• Law and order: clear laws and procedures supported by political (the Caesars) and military personnel strategically located throughout the empire provided a reasonably stable social environment.
• An extensive network of roads: made it possible to travel throughout the world with ease and efficiency.
  • The Egnatian (or Ignatian) Way connected Achaia and Macedonia, running east and west.
  • The Appian Way ran north and south in Italy through Rome.
• Spiritual emptiness: traditional pantheon worship, emperor worship, and the emergence of secretive cults failed to meet the spiritual needs of people, fostering openness to the gospel message.